Researching on Child sexual abuse
Factors influencing child sexual abuse are male dominance in society, men's professed inability to control sexual desire, and magic beliefs. Victims are traumatized by the abuse itself as well as by subsequent problems in family, health and in court. Since child sexual abuse may endanger the life and well-being of the child, it is a serious problem that requires urgent action.
Child sexual
abuse victims locked up in psychological prisons
[article in the newsday newspaper]
The side effects of abuse against children frequently result in mental problems, social exclusion, anger, self-blame, low self-esteem, intellectual paralysis and numerous other psychological disorders. And violence and sexual abuse add their own traumatising effects on young minds, not to mention sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and early, unplanned pregnancies.
Despite numerous laws protecting children’s rights, including the new Constitution, and the presence of child protection and welfare organisations established by the government and civil society, incidents of child abuse have become so prevalent that it has become a cause for serious concern in Zimbabwean society.
According to the Zimbabwe Republic Police national statistics obtained through the Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, at least 5 000 children are abused annually with most of these being cases of sexual violence.
From January to March of this year, a total 1 354 rape cases were reported with 946 of this total being girl child rape. An analysis of the 2013 statistics reveal that most offenders of child abuse are neighbours, uncles, cousins, fathers and stepfathers, and friends. Strangers figure to a much lesser extent than those who are already known to the child.
Causes of abuse
For example, it is well-known that some traditional healers prescribe having sexual intercourse with a child as a means to enhance wealth, or even curative to HIV and Aids and other STIs. Other beliefs, such as appeasement, where a girl is given away to appease a spirit, as well as acts, such as chiramu usually practiced in Shona culture between brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law through touching, kissing and fondling increase the risk of sexual abuse. Religious beliefs reinforced by some men of cloth are compounding these unacceptable practices exploiting the innocence of children.
predisposing factors
Economically, rising poverty levels have exacerbated the situation. Many families cannot afford rentals, creating a situation whereby adults share a single room with children. Many parents migrating to foreign countries for better job opportunities also leave young children behind in the custody of maids and relatives, further exposing minors to abuse. Many HIV orphans under the care of relatives and even with no direct supervision, and are often stigmatised as also suffering from the disease, and are forced to drop out of school to fend for themselves.
Medeline Dube, the NACZ communications director, notes that the breakdown in family moral values has contributed to the rising tide of child neglect and abuse.
Childline officer Patience Chiyangwa observes: “Gender-based violence is a key contributor to child abuse, with abuse happening in the home, a place where children are meant to be safe. And in most cases this is being done by a person known to the child, further complicating the situation.”
‘Legal system too lenient on offenders’
Other sections of society believe the courts are to blame for imposing sentences against offenders that do not serve as a sufficient deterrent to others not to commit such crimes. extracted from
Prevention of child sexual abuse in China: Knowledge, attitudes, and
communication practices of parents of elementary school children by JingQi
Chena, ,Michael
P. Dunneb, Ping
Hana
Understanding of CSA and reporting practices
The
role and attitude of family and community continue to be cited as important
factors in sexual abuse reporting, as well as the relationship between perpetrator
and victim .
It is argued that the interaction between children and parents are often driven
by customary practices and personal belief which may be in conflict with
current thinking .
AFRUCA Paper On Child Sexual Abuse in the Family Environment
Child Sexual Abuse in the African Family Context
Child Sexual Abuse happens in every religion and ethnic group with major challenges around prevention, reporting, support for victims and prosecution. However, within the Black/African Community the twin facets of religion and culture can further compound this problem. This is not because religion or culture are necessarily bad but rather because perpetrators use religion and culture which they know are central to an African’s life to manipulate their victims.
Faith leaders have a lot of influence in places of worship but also within the family settings due to the very high regard for religion, the importance attached to faith leaders as “Men of God” and their special role in society. In effect, for many African families, the power of faith leaders also extends into family homes – leaving vulnerable children and parents at potential risk of harm. The subject of child sexual abuse is generally considered a taboo and there is little discussion of it at any level, especially within family settings, leaving it to fester and be swept under the carpet.
Furthermore, child sexual abuse is surrounded by a culture of shame, secrecy, stigma, and silence especially when the perpetrator is a prominent member of the community or a powerful faith leader. There are often challenges around reporting and credibility on the part of the child and their family.
Furthermore, research shows that stress, social isolation, poverty, immigration and housing problems, domestic violence which are challenges that are quite rife amongst many Africans in the UK can act as triggers for child sexual abuse. Economic and social instability of parents can leave children vulnerable to sexual abuse. For example if a parent has to always leave their child/children in the hands of other adults in order to work, these children are more likely to be at risk of different form of abuse including sexual abuse. Housing problems and overcrowding might make children vulnerable to abuse if accommodation is shared with other “uncles” and “aunties.”
Additionally, the extended nature of many black families with possibly many visitors to the family home might make it easier for sexual abuse to occur.
Some of the key issues raised
Risk Factors for Child Sexual Abuse by DAVID
FINKELHOR and LARRY
BARON
Recently while assisting a student nurse do research on
child sexual abuse in Zimbabwe, we discovered that there was limited literature
on parents knowledge and
perceptions. Little was written about
were parents got information on child sexual abuse and on what they knew about
it.To assist others in future looking at child sexual
abuse, we have listed some sources we found useful on the topic
together with links were available.
Hopefully they will assist in the fight against child sexual abuse and
assist in further research on the topic especially in Zimbabwe.
Research in Zimbabwe
Management of Child Sexual Abuse Cases by Female School Heads in Zimbabwe by
Journal of Psychology in Africa Volume 19, Issue 1, 2009. pages 99-102
Findings of the study showed that the following forms of
child abuse were prevalent among primary school pupils: sexual abuse of girls;
physical assault and punishments; denial of food/feeling hungry/fainting
(emotional/psychological abuse); and lack of cash to buy clothes/stationery.
Social Science & Medicine, Volume
41, Issue 12, December 1995, Pages 1693-1704
Meursing, Theo Vos, Odette Coutinho,
Michael Moyo, Sipho Mpofu, Olola Oneko, Verity Mundy, Simukai Dube, Thembeni
Mahlangu, Flora Sibindi
Factors influencing child sexual abuse are male dominance in society, men's professed inability to control sexual desire, and magic beliefs. Victims are traumatized by the abuse itself as well as by subsequent problems in family, health and in court. Since child sexual abuse may endanger the life and well-being of the child, it is a serious problem that requires urgent action.
West Indian Med J. 2014 Oct; 63(6): 634–637.
Fighting Child Sexual Abuse: Perspectives of Pupils From a Developing Country by PesanayiGwirayi
DOI:
This study investigated secondary school pupils’ views on strategies that
can be used to prevent child sexual abuse (CSA). The study revealed that most pupils
believed that CSA can be prevented through teaching them about it and also
reporting to the police. Another significant finding was that pupils’ responses
tended to vary with gender and level of education. Whereas female respondents
suggested that CSA can be fought by avoiding strangers, saying no to sexual
advances, and having reliable friends, their male counterparts suggested
teaching the community about CSA, forming new clubs, and enacting life
imprisonment for perpetrators, among other suggestions. In terms of level of
education, Form 2 participants suggested avoiding strangers, staying home at
night, whereas their Form 4 counterparts suggested lessons for Guidance and
Counseling, saying no to sexual advances, and having reliable friends. These
findings unequivocally demonstrate the need to vigorously engage secondary
school pupils in activities aimed at fighting CSA to safeguard their
inalienable human rights. extracted from http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/3/1/2158244012472687
Hidden
in plain sight: Child sexual abuse in Zimbabwe
By Richard
Nyamanhindi
Child sexual abuse is on the rise in
Zimbabwe. With the Zimbabwe Republic Police reporting that more than 100 girls
are sexually abused every day in Zimbabwe —more than at any other time in the
history of the country — it is likely that development workers will encounter
children who have been sexually abused in their day to day activities.
Development workers should learn the
warning signs of child sexual abuse and the actions they can take when they see
it, because the places they work are among the most likely spots for child
sexual abuse – particularly in homes and communities.Unfortunately, many development
workers have heard of child sexual abuse but do not understand the symptoms or
feel supported by their agency to be on the alert.
Red flags
How can field staffers identify if a
child has been/or is being sexually abused, or if a community is being affected
by child sexual abuse? Child sexual abuse is typically hidden in plain sight.
Sexually abused children are often too afraid to talk and their abusers are
often close by. But there are red flags to watch for: any signs of fear, or
people saying that things are going fine when it is obvious that children
especially girls do not play as other children and are always withdrawn for
daily normal activities.
Another red flag is increased
dropout rates for girls in schools. Children who are sexually abused usually do
not perform well in school. Other signs include distraction or distance at odd
times; writes, draws, plays or dreams of sexual or frightening images; develops
new or unusual fear of certain people or places; refuses to talk about a secret
shared with an adult or older child; talks about a new older friend; suddenly
has money, toys or other gifts without reason and exhibits adult-like sexual
behaviors, language and knowledge.
So what
steps can an aid or development worker take when they discover child sexual
abuse?
First: one needs to watch out for the safety of the child or
children they encounter. Children can be beaten into submission or threatened
with death if the abuser discovers they are interacting with outsiders.
Second: do not try to deal with child sexual abuse singlehanded.
People are tempted to just “get the child out.” That is a very human, natural
response. But child sexual abuse survivors need somewhere to go that is safe,
where they will receive basic services, where they will have space to recover
and where they can be reintegrated into society. Find out who is doing what
about child sexual abuse in the country and in your local area. Which are the
really trusted organizations that do substantive work to assist survivors.
Beyond helping individuals, aid
workers can help by getting the issue into the open in the community.
Short-term awareness raising and one-time meetings may not make much of a
difference. But sometimes with a little reengineering for example of a school
improvement project, cash transfers, a women’s empowerment improvement program,
you can provide a real pathway to liberation for those affected by child sexual
abuse —as well as some long-term protection to reduce the risk that child
sexual abuse will reoccur. extracted from http://www.unicef.org/zimbabwe/resources_15420.html
Newspaper articles on child sexual abuse
[article in the newsday newspaper]
The side effects of abuse against children frequently result in mental problems, social exclusion, anger, self-blame, low self-esteem, intellectual paralysis and numerous other psychological disorders. And violence and sexual abuse add their own traumatising effects on young minds, not to mention sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and early, unplanned pregnancies.
Despite numerous laws protecting children’s rights, including the new Constitution, and the presence of child protection and welfare organisations established by the government and civil society, incidents of child abuse have become so prevalent that it has become a cause for serious concern in Zimbabwean society.
According to the Zimbabwe Republic Police national statistics obtained through the Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, at least 5 000 children are abused annually with most of these being cases of sexual violence.
From January to March of this year, a total 1 354 rape cases were reported with 946 of this total being girl child rape. An analysis of the 2013 statistics reveal that most offenders of child abuse are neighbours, uncles, cousins, fathers and stepfathers, and friends. Strangers figure to a much lesser extent than those who are already known to the child.
Causes of abuse
For example, it is well-known that some traditional healers prescribe having sexual intercourse with a child as a means to enhance wealth, or even curative to HIV and Aids and other STIs. Other beliefs, such as appeasement, where a girl is given away to appease a spirit, as well as acts, such as chiramu usually practiced in Shona culture between brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law through touching, kissing and fondling increase the risk of sexual abuse. Religious beliefs reinforced by some men of cloth are compounding these unacceptable practices exploiting the innocence of children.
predisposing factors
Economically, rising poverty levels have exacerbated the situation. Many families cannot afford rentals, creating a situation whereby adults share a single room with children. Many parents migrating to foreign countries for better job opportunities also leave young children behind in the custody of maids and relatives, further exposing minors to abuse. Many HIV orphans under the care of relatives and even with no direct supervision, and are often stigmatised as also suffering from the disease, and are forced to drop out of school to fend for themselves.
Medeline Dube, the NACZ communications director, notes that the breakdown in family moral values has contributed to the rising tide of child neglect and abuse.
Childline officer Patience Chiyangwa observes: “Gender-based violence is a key contributor to child abuse, with abuse happening in the home, a place where children are meant to be safe. And in most cases this is being done by a person known to the child, further complicating the situation.”
‘Legal system too lenient on offenders’
Other sections of society believe the courts are to blame for imposing sentences against offenders that do not serve as a sufficient deterrent to others not to commit such crimes. extracted from
Parents knowledge of child sexual abuse
Child Sex Abuse. 2006;15(4):1-18.
Parental knowledge of child sexual abuse symptoms by Pullins
LG1, Jones
JD.
A total of 150 parents listed
symptoms of CSA in the following areas: physical/medical, emotional, sexual
behavior, and behavior towards others. Results suggest that, although most
parents are familiar with some of the symptoms of CSA, they are more likely to
know emotional or behavioral reactions which could be suggestive of many other
life stressors. …..Results suggest the need to inform parents of more
indicative physical or sexual symptoms, and to target parents of lower SES
background in awareness efforts. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17200051
J Child Sex Abus. 2011
Nov;20(6):695-707. doi: 10.1080/10538712.2011.627584.
Preventing child sexual abuse: parents'
perceptions and practices in urban Nigeria by Ige
OK1, Fawole
OI.
This study examined parents' perceptions of child sexual abuse as well as
prevention practices in an urban community in southwest Nigeria. This study
illustrated parents awareness of the CSA problem with most parents reporting on stranger dangers but 47% felt their children could not be abused,
and over a quarter (27.1%) often left their children alone and unsupervised. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22126111
Knowledge and attitude towards rape and child sexual
abuse – a community-based cross-sectional study in Rural Tanzani Muzdalifat Abeid,
Projestine Muganyizi, Siriel Massawe, Rose Mpembeni, Elisabeth Darj
and Pia Axemo
BMC Public Health201515:428 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-1757-7
This study showed that these rural communities have poor
knowledge on sexual violence and have accepting attitudes towards sexual
violence. Increasing age and higher education were associated with better
knowledge and less accepting attitudes towards sexual violence. The study also showed
that the consequences of rape and CSA are not well understood by the community,
including health care workers
Volume 31, Issue 7,
July 2007, Pages 747–755
- This study confirms the apparently low levels of knowledge about CSA, even among those who talk about this problem with their children, future prevention programs should include community-wide efforts to educate adults to ensure that parental advice is accurate and hopefully, effective.
Parental involvement in child abuse prevention training: What do they learn?
This study showed that Parent education appeared to have
little effect upon (1) parents' knowledge of the prevalence of child sexual
abuse, (2) indicators of abuse, or (3) parents' appropriate response to
disclosures. Results from the parent data show the negligible effect of parent
education as it is presently delivered..
Volume 28, Issue 11,
November 2004, Pages 1187–1197
Intention to participate in child sexual abuse prevention programs: a study of Chinese adults in Hong Kong
Among participants, nearly two-thirds believed CSA involved physical injuries of victims, 40% perceived boys as unlikely victims of CSA, and one-third were skeptical about children reports of CSA. Participants who showed definite intention to participate in these programs endorsed fewer myths in relation to CSA, showed more worry about children being at risk of sexual abuse, perceived CSA as more prevalent and involving more physical injuries of victims, and were more likely to be women.
Public opinion and knowledge about childhood sexual abuse in a rural community
- Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 23, Issue 7, July 1999, Pages 671-682
- James F Calvert Jr., Michelle Munsie-Benson
Results of this study showed that significant proportions of
respondents were fairly knowledgeable about CSA, gaps in knowledge were found
in all age groups and ethnic groups. Groups with the most significant knowledge
deficits about CSA included men, unmarried respondents, respondents who had not
had children, respondents in younger age groups, respondents of Latino descent,
and respondents with low incomes or low education. These data indicate that
significant deficits as well as strengths in knowledge about CSA exist in this
rural community, and identify populations to which community education about
CSA could be directed.
Cultural factors influencing child sexual abuse
Original Research Article
·
Child Abuse
& Neglect, Volume 33, Issue 8, August 2009, Pages
524-532
·
Carol A. Plummer, Wambui Njuguna
Participants identified a number of cultural factors that
protect children from sexual abuse as well as those that create risk for sexual
abuse. Strong similarities were identified across groups; however in some cases
factors viewed as risks by some were viewed as protective by others. Awareness of traditions and practices may inform
creation of interventions for preventing child sexual abuse.
PMCID: PMC4663956
Child Sexual Abuse and Continuous Influence of Cultural Practices: A Review by S Shafe
and G
Hutchinson
Cultural practices are no longer restricted to one geographical
collection of people due to migratory influence, as these practices may also
spread to different groups who intermingle.
Cultural norms affect disclosure and reporting and are variously
influenced by religion and global cultural trends (1). Child
sexual abuse (CSA) may be intra-familial, extra-familial or transactional , which
may explain the wide estimate of CSA of 11–32% for females and 4–14% for males .
Reporting practices are influenced by sensitivity, fear, taboo, attitude,
acceptable practices and prejudice; also, community passivity, legal system
inadequacies and weaknesses, and the general perceptions and attitudes toward
sexual offences against children contribute to a much muted response to CSA .
In a review of sexual practices and offences in India, it was
reported that during trials, alleged sexual offenders often say they were not
aware that they committed an offence.
In some
cultures, there is strong belief that girls deserve to be abused because of the
way they dress and not
adhering to traditional values .
The
level of openness is influenced by sensitivity attached to CSA and the overall
effect on the family unit. In less open societies like China, victims
may not volunteer information on abuse for cultural reasons (both altruistic
and self-protection). Invasion of sexual privacy may be accepted where there is
inadequate education, and information is often obtained with difficulty from
reluctant informants who are scared of the cultural implication of their
disclosure. Child abuse procedure in Jordan is reported to be initiated only
when there is death or severe damage. This
implies that the presence of effective laws against CSA hinges on the
implementation.
The influence of religion on CSA is not well defined, with overlap
among different regions. In the Ryan report, children were said to be easily
intimidated by the religious and physical authority of those in charge, viewing
the religious personnel as God's representative on earth ;
however, another author suggested that priests were no different
psychologically from other child predators.
Children are regarded as property of their parents in some cultures
and this may explain the practice of “ethic of Xiao”, which prescribe that
children should obey their parents without asking questions. This
practice is common in many non-western cultures.
Separation and divorce of parents is a major factor in CSA, due to
the absence of one parent.
.
In an anecdotal report, Tanzanian women alleged that traditional witch
doctors advised men looking for wealth to have sexual intercourse with virgin
girls.
This same practice is extended to the “cure” of acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS), by having sex with virgins. This was said to be responsible for
the rape of about 60 children per day in South Africa according to unofficial
reports.
The way children are viewed make other practices such as arranged marriages
common in south Asia,
Africa, Middle East and southeast Asia, in
which girls are given away in marriages without their consent by relatives. The
consequences of this include honour killings in situation where the girls
object to their parents' wishes. In Africa, Middle East and Asia, these
practices are found among people of all socio-economic groups. extracted from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4663956/ AFRUCA Paper On Child Sexual Abuse in the Family Environment
Child Sexual Abuse happens in every religion and ethnic group with major challenges around prevention, reporting, support for victims and prosecution. However, within the Black/African Community the twin facets of religion and culture can further compound this problem. This is not because religion or culture are necessarily bad but rather because perpetrators use religion and culture which they know are central to an African’s life to manipulate their victims.
Faith leaders have a lot of influence in places of worship but also within the family settings due to the very high regard for religion, the importance attached to faith leaders as “Men of God” and their special role in society. In effect, for many African families, the power of faith leaders also extends into family homes – leaving vulnerable children and parents at potential risk of harm. The subject of child sexual abuse is generally considered a taboo and there is little discussion of it at any level, especially within family settings, leaving it to fester and be swept under the carpet.
Furthermore, child sexual abuse is surrounded by a culture of shame, secrecy, stigma, and silence especially when the perpetrator is a prominent member of the community or a powerful faith leader. There are often challenges around reporting and credibility on the part of the child and their family.
Furthermore, research shows that stress, social isolation, poverty, immigration and housing problems, domestic violence which are challenges that are quite rife amongst many Africans in the UK can act as triggers for child sexual abuse. Economic and social instability of parents can leave children vulnerable to sexual abuse. For example if a parent has to always leave their child/children in the hands of other adults in order to work, these children are more likely to be at risk of different form of abuse including sexual abuse. Housing problems and overcrowding might make children vulnerable to abuse if accommodation is shared with other “uncles” and “aunties.”
Additionally, the extended nature of many black families with possibly many visitors to the family home might make it easier for sexual abuse to occur.
Some of the key issues raised
- Ignorance surrounding Sexual Abuse
- Ignorance of modern ways of abusing children such as; internet grooming, sexting, pornography.
- Taboos around Sexual Abuse in the African Community
- Denial that Faith Leaders can abuse children
- Ignorance about the different forms of abuse and warning signs to prevent abuse.
- Lack of self-esteem among girls
- Lack of appropriate Support Services (counselling, general advice)
- An increase in Gang culture and Gang Rape
- Lack of Role Models and “Respect”
- Lack of interest in sexual abuse in the Black/African community by Policy makers
- Lack of referrals or people coming forward to report sexual abuse
- Lack of evidence to take cases forward, prolonging cases or unwillingness/fear of parties to co-operate
- Negative/ misleading media surrounding perpetrators
- Cultural and Religious “smokescreen” – where culture and religion are used as excuses for child abuse – (“That is how we bring up our children”)
- Lack of reporting or taking action on the part of professionals for fear of
- Lack of referrals or people coming forward in BME communities
- Lack of culturally appropriate services due to lack of understanding of cultural barriers to reporting abuse.
extracted from AFRUCA – Africans Unite Against Child Abuse
http://www.afruca.org.uk/position-paper/2237/
RISK FACTORS LEADING TO CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
Several other factors have emerged from community studies as being
consistently associated with higher risk for abuse: (a) when a child lives
without one of the biological parents; (b) when the mother is unavailable to
the child either as a result of employment outside the home or disability and
illness; (c) when the child reports that the parents' marriage is unhappy or
conflictual; (d) when the child reports having a poor relationship with the
parents or being subject to extremely punitive discipline or child abuse; (e)
when the child reports having a stepfather. The article draws some implications
from these findings and makes recommendations for ways to improve subsequent
studies of risk factors. extracted from http://jiv.sagepub.com/content/1/1/43.short
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